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HELLENISM & INDEPENDENCE
333 BC - 37BC
333 BC
323 BC
200 BC
167 BC
140 BC
37 BC
ALEXANDER THE GREAT
In 333 BC, the Persians were defeated by the famous Macedonian ruler, Alexander the Great. Alexander conquered ancient Israel and was mentioned in a legend in Rabbinical literature and by Jewish historian, Josephus. In this story, Alexander met with the high priest of Jerusalem. The fascinating Huqoq mosaics show, according to Archaeologist Jody Magness, Alexander in a purple cloak meeting with Jerusalem’s high priest, who is wearing a white tunic. (See article ).
Only ten years after conquering the region, Alexander the Great fell ill and died in 323 BCE. His generals subsequently fought over control of his vast empire, dividing it into several Hellenistic kingdoms. During much of the 3rd century BCE, former kingdom of Judah remained under Ptolemaic rule. Greek administration, culture, and language became increasingly influential, while many local traditions continued. This shift can be seen in it's name when Judah, came to be widely known as Judea, reflecting its integration into the Hellenistic world. It became a frontier region between the Ptolemaic Kingdom in Egypt and the Seleucid Empire, whose capital was Damascus (see map). The rivalry between the ruling houses of Ptolemy and Seleucus led to a series of conflicts known as the Syrian Wars, as both dynasties competed for control of the eastern Mediterranean.
The balance of power finally shifted in 200 BCE, when the Seleucid king defeated the Ptolemies at the Battle of Panium on the Golan Heights. As a result, Judea passed from Ptolemaic to Seleucid rule. Although Jerusalem was smaller than it had been before the Babylonian conquest, it remained a vital regional and religious center where Jewish life continued to flourish and adapt within a Hellenistic environment. The interaction between enduring Jewish traditions and Greek culture shaped Judea throughout this period and laid the foundations for the growing tensions that would later emerge under Seleucid rule.
In the 3rd century BCE, the Hebrew Bible was translated into Greek in Alexandria as the Septuagint, making the Jewish Scriptures accessible to the wider Greek-speaking world. At the same time, in Judea, Jewish scribes continued to preserve and copy biblical texts. Among the earliest surviving examples are the Qumran manuscripts, including the Exodus–Leviticus Scroll (4Q27) and the Samuel Scroll (4Q52). These manuscripts reflect the careful transmission of sacred writings and would later become part of the broader collection known as the Dead Sea Scrolls.
Archaeological discoveries also demonstrate Jerusalem's continued importance during the Ptolemaic period. A rare pure gold coin of Berenice II, wife of Ptolemy III Euergetes, minted between approximately 246 and 241 BCE, was recently unearthed in the City of David. One of only about twenty known examples worldwide—and the first ever discovered in a controlled archaeological excavation—the coin suggests that Jerusalem maintained active trade networks, an administrative presence, and greater economic vitality than previously assumed after the destruction of the First Temple.
3rd Century BCE Scroll 109, Qohelet or Ecclesiastes. (photo wikimedia, Osama Shukir Mohammed Amir)._
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Zenon Papyri. photo: Tilemahos Efthimiades
Archaeological research in Egypt also resulted in valuable hist0rical information about Jewish live in Judea during the Greek occupation. The Zenon Papyri are were named after Zenon or Zeno (Greek: Ζήνων) who lived in the 3th century BC and worked as a private secretary to Apollonius, the finance minister to the Egyptian rulers Ptolemy II Philadelphus and Ptolemy III Euergetes. He visited the Land of Israel and accompanied his master on trips to Egypt. One of the letters name a wealthy Jew, Tobiah and the Jewish custom of honouring the Sabbath. The Zenon papyri which consisted of around 2000 documents also gave clear information on the widespread use of slaves and the selling and prices of slaves (papyrus 158 and 466 for example).
Yavne Inscription mentioning "Antiochus III". Photo: Hanav
Heliodorus inscription confirming parts of the 2nd book of Maccabees.
MACCABEAN REVOLT BY YEHUDA HAMAKABI
Antisemitism might have originated centuries earlier when the Israelites started worshipping only one god (Yahweh) instead of multiple gods (see chapter 1), but it can be clearly seen in the 3rd century BC. In 167 BC, the Seleucid king Antiochus tried to eradicate Judaism in an effort to impose Hellenistic religion on the Jews in Judea. This 'Greek antisemitism' possibly originated in Egypt. Greek culture was influenced by the high developed Egyptian culture and knowledge. Perhaps the antisemitic writings of the Egyptian priest Manetho in the third century BC also affected the Greeks’ attitude towards the Jewish people.
King Antiochus IV Epiphanes initially granted some freedom and privileges to the Jews. But in 167 BC, he intervened at the request of the high priest of Jerusalem Menelaus. According to book of Maccabees, it was Menelaus who persuaded Antiochus to Hellenize the Jewish religion. This thereby brought about the uprising of the Judeans. This Maccabean revolt was led by Judah Maccabe (Yehudah HaMakabi) and the Jewish high priest Mattathias (Mattiyahu). They led the Judeans successful rebellion against the strong Seleucid Empire in the war that lasted from 167 to 160 BC.
The Jewish holiday of Hanukkah ("Dedication") commemorates the restoration of Jewish worship at the second temple in Jerusalem in 164 BC, after Judah Maccabeus removed all of the statues depicting Greek gods and goddesses and 'purified' the temple. In the final battle of Elasa in 167 BC, Judah was eventually killed by forces of the Greek king Diodotos Tryphon, and the remaining Judeans fled. Recently, a burnt fortress and Seleucid sling shot were excavated with the name of this Greek king. Interesting is also the story of Channah, daughter of the high priest Mattathias of Modi'in, and how the rebellion started against the Greeks (see link).
Jericho, The Hasmonean Dynasty’s Palace built by John Hyrcanus and his Son Alexander Jannaeus.
HASMONEAN KINGDOM & JEWISH INDEPENDENCE
The Seleucids had reasserted their authority temporarily in Jerusalem, but Judah's brother Jonathan, and after him Simeon, continued to engage Seleucids in many battles. Eventually, after several additional years of war, the Seleucid control of Judea was broken. The descendants of Simeon established the Hasmonean dynasty which became independent by 140 BC and lasted until the Herodean dynasty (37 BC). This famous revolt and the end of Greek rule was described in the Books of Maccabees.
The Book of Maccabees is important both historically for Jewish history and religion due to the celebration of Hannukah. But sadly, the Hebrew originals of this book were lost. The Greek translations survived, and the Book of Maccabees became part of the Catholic and Orthodox bibles and tradition. Also, the members of the Maccabee family are regarded as saints in the Catholic and Eastern Orthodox traditions, and they are venerated on the first of August. In a sense, these books are a strong reminder of the common roots of Christianity and Judaism.
HASMONEAN ARCHEAOLOGY
Simeon Ben Shelach established the first schools based around synagogues (derived from the ancient Greek word meaning 'house of assembly'). A synagogue or 'Beyt Knesset' in Hebrew is a consecrated place for prayer, reading and study.
Beautiful ruins of synagogues are found dating back to this Hasmonean times. Important is the complex of Hasmonean (and Herodian) buildings that are called the ‘Hasmonean royal winter palaces'. They were discovered in the western plain of the Jericho valley. These palaces included ritual baths (mikveh or miqva’ot) and a synagogue dated between 75 and 50 BC.
Jason's Tomb, photo by Deror Avi
The city of David in Jerusalem has revealed many important archaeological treasures, like Hasmonean buildings and coins. Further the ingenious Hasmonean Aquaduct and Jason's Tomb can be seen in the capital of the Hasmonean Kingdoms. The remarkable family tomb with a clear Greek architectural style revealed 1st century BC Graffiti drawings of Menorot. Inscriptions like the 'tomb of Jason' indicate these burials were from a Jewish priestly family. The drawings of ships in these tombs give a rare picture of ancient times.
Famous is the Hyrcanus' inscription found in Jerusalem. A king with the same name succeeded in defeating the Seleucid empire but also ruled the kingdom with brutal force. The Samaritans who sided with the Seleucid's were defeated by Hyrcanus who massacred many Samaritans and tried to erase Samaritan religion and their temple on Mount Gerizim. Ever since the bitter rivalry between Jews and 'Samaritan' Jews continued for centuries.
Less known are the Hasmonean traces found in other regions. The agricultural settlement in Horvat Assad (northern Galilee) that gives rare and valuable information about life in the North of Israel. Even more fascinating finds are the string of Hasmonean forts like Horvat Tefen that have been discovered.
HASMONEAN QUEENS
From a historical perspective, it is important to look at the role that women played in history. While reliable historical sources do not exist, the story of Rabbi Shlomo Yitzchaki (Rashi) who lived during the Crusades and massacres in Europe, refers to the themes of persecution and braveness. Rashi told a story of an unnamed woman who protested against Greek army's 'right' to take the virginity of a Jewish bride.
The woman showed no fear and instead of giving herself to the Greek generals on her wedding night, she chose to strip herself naked in front of the people of her village. Her protest showed the humiliation and shame of Jewish brides and violence by the Greek rulers. This inspired Jews to take up arms in defence of their women and starting revolts against the Greek empire. Similarly, a story in the Talmud, tells how a Hasmonean woman refused to bow before a Greek idol. Even when Greek soldiers killed all of her seven children in front of her, this heroic woman refused to surrender and stayed loyal to her religion.
Queen Salome Alexandra (141-67 BC)
During the Hasmonean Kingdom period, women did actually posses power. King John Hyrcanus had decided to give the control of the government to his wife when he died. However, his son, Aristobulus I, who was named high priest after the death of Hyrcanus, brutally imprisoned and killed his own mother to become ruler of the Kingdom. Eventually his wife, Salome Alexandra (or Salome of Jerusalem) was one of only two women to rule over Judea (the other queen was Athaliah). More often, the Hasmonean rulers transferred civil authority to their royal wives. This development was largely influenced by Hellenism. The role of Hasmonean queens and the norms by which they were judged were more like what was common during the Ptolemaic and Seleucid Empires. The Hasmonean kings as far as we know were monogamous while the earlier Davidic kings were used to polygamy. ​(see also the fascinating article of Alexander Keyes)
Hasmonean wall - Sartaba Photo: Tamarah